Surveys

About

Surveys of the American West were common beginning in the 1840s. In the decade of the 1850s there were often several simultaneous and competing government sponsored explorations and expeditions occurring. With the start of the Civil War in 1861, there was a halt to exploring the western states and territories. Explorations resumed in 1867 with a survey of the geology and natural resources along the 40th parallel route of the transcontinental railroad, conducted by the Corps of Engineers, and led by 25 year old geologist Clarence King, a recent graduate of Yale College. During the same year a survey of the newly acquired state Nevada was conducted by the General Land Office.

Explorations and expeditions were used to guide economic, ideological and political forces in the growing country. The primary purpose of the surveys was to produce topographic maps of the regions. Photographs taken during explorations and expeditions were influential in establishing national parks such as Yellowstone National Park in 1872 and Yosemite National Park in 1890. Clarence King, geologist and the first director of the United States Geological Survey, argued these surveys were to “produce a series of land maps” in order to demonstrate economic exploration possibilities to “intelligent agriculturalists, miners, engineers, and timberman.” (Wickliff, 3) The surveys helped establish the myth of “inexhaustible wealth, timber, and agricultural promise” and spread the belief that technology and man could master the land.

The photographers and artists who accompanied the explorations portrayed a landscape where man could go and tame the wilderness, Christianize the savages or spread the gospel of democracy and freedom. There is less evidences of the “low points of the historical record”, namely economic disasters, mining busts, droughts, depredations of the land, decimation of the buffalo herds, near obliteration of Indian cultures. (qtd. in Truettner, viii) While the photographers sought to demonstrate man’s achievement over nature (with photos of water towers, trains, etc.), the landscape artists removed any reference of man, presenting only the “glory of nature.” (qtd. in Truettner, 251) It is unfortunate that travelers of the time period saw a landscape consisting of “denuded” mountains, ravaged forests and a declining buffalo population, among other man-made destruction.

The “Grand Surveys”

From 1867 to 1879 when the United States Geological Survey was established, there were four “Grand Surveys” of the west. Two of the surveys, the 40th Parallel Survey led by Clarence King; and the One Hundredth Meridian led by George Wheeler survey were conducted under the War Department. The other two surveys were conducted through the Department of the Interior. Not only were the surveys competing for government funds but they were often exploring the same regions.